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The workshop dynamics build an understanding of how key changes in a work system directly affect employee perceptions, which ultimately affects behavior. With this understanding, participants gain the ability to create organization environments that increase positive behaviors and performance. :%OBJECTIVES The objectives of this workshop are to help you: ` ` Understand how work perceptions increase and decrease the amount of energy workers choose to devote to their work.x` ` ` Experience changes in a simulated manufacturing organization in a controlled setting so that you can examine the effects those changes have on your own energy levels.x` ` ` Discover the impact of work system elements on your own work perceptions and energy levels.x` ` ` Enhance your ability to make changes in your own work system and the work perceptions of employees in your organization back home.x` %-}'}'Ԍ ` ` Transform your rational understandings of motivation into personal understandings of energy, commitment, and vitality and their critical role in high performance organizations.x` ` ` Feel the dynamic tension of elements in a work system as they combine to produce high energy work perceptions.x` ` ` Explain the essential ingredients of individual and organizational renewal and how to make renewal last.x` ` ` Identify the elements needed to create and maintain commitment.x` "LEARNING APPROACH The basic instructional strategy used in this workshop is a manufacturing simulation involving the production of a unit of security equipment. Participants assume major responsibility right from the beginning in the design of the organization or work system and the technology used to manufacture the product. Throughout the simulation, the processes and technology are modified to provide new experiences. As changes are made, organizational groups analyze both what has happened and their reactions to the changes, making note of the effects that the changes produce in work perceptions and energy levels. In each production round, different elements of the work system are targeted and receive special attention for deriving principles about effects. At prearranged times, measurements of manufacturing effectiveness are taken, posted and analyzed. Also, measures of energy level are also derived from specially constructed questionnaires. The data from these are also posted and analyzed. r&-}'}'ԌAt regular intervals, members of organization units meet, review theory and practices, and make decisions about what products they want to manufacture and how they would like to change the processes and technology for enhancing the amount of energy to be devoted to tasks and for achieving optimum output. A primary goal of the learning philosophy is to create a prototype for a learning organization. Participants discover what it means to be part of a learning organization.F-}'}'  \ #  PE37zP# % INTRODUCING ă  \  ORGANIZATIONAL VITALITY ă   # PE37 ,P#yx dddy   yx dddy  b6 % BACKGROUND ă Vitality means vigorously, positively, confidently, and creatively engaging in any activity. Employees' perceptions, not reality, determine their level of vitality. Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. None of us sees reality; we simply interpret what we see and call it reality. Often, our beliefs are so strong that we cannot see what is actually there, but what we believe is there. A person's interpretation of a situation (person, object, or event) is heavily influenced by personal characteristics, such as BELIEFS (what we accept as true), FEELINGS (positive and negative judgments), DISPOSITIONS (tendencies to act) and ATTRIBUTIONS (explanations of the causes of behavior). Thus what we perceive ("see") affects how willing we are to devote energy to our work.  b  " WORK PERCEPTIONS ă From research and actual observation in organizations, we have identified four basic perceptions that are indicators of vitality:  b organization. x`  bR   NATURAL GROWTH GOALS ă Employees who feel energized and vital function in a work system that encourages them to achieve several natural growth goals. A goal is those things that people want to achieve. Growth goals are the things that people want to achieve that allow them to grow, expand and enhance their lives. Natural goals are derived from the nature of human consciousness. Consciousness includes individual desires, visions, anticipations, imagination and aspiration. Natural growth goals are derived from the capacity of human beings to project thoughts backward and forward in time, and to imagine things being different from what they are. To project images of what might be and what ought to be, to infer and deduce explanations and conclusions, and to further their own happiness and wellbeing. Growth goals and the purposeful action needed to achieve the goals are what is quintessentially human about human beings. The primary natural growth goals are grouped under the work perceptions that they support.-}'}'  \ #  PE37zP# " KEYS TO VITALITY ă  \  FOUR BASIC PERCEPTIONS ă   # PE37 ,P#yx dddy   yx dddy  b6 ) ONE ă  bO #  PERCEPTIONS OF PERFORMANCE ă An employee's performance has to do with the way in which he or she does things associated with a job, position, or role in the organization. Two types of behaviors or work tasks appear to encompass the critical elements of job performance: functional tasks and behavioral tasks. The first, functional, has to do with how well an employee completes the mechanics of the job, including primarily the completion of technical aspects of the job. The second, behavioral, has to do with how well the employee handles interpersonal activities with others in the organization, including resolving conflicts, managing time, motivating others, working with a group and working independently. It has been demonstrated that how strongly people feel about whether or not they can perform well (I am sure I can do it) affects their actual performance. Individuals with high selfesteem appear to be those who are also more confident in their ability to perform. Individuals with proper experience and skills try to cultivate their talents and maximize their successes in order to excel. In the vitality formula, perceptions of selfefficacy (I am sure I can do it) or performance leads to the dedication of more energy to a task. The effort that results from performance work perceptions accelerates productivity.  b6 E  PERFORMANCE GROWTH GOALS ă 1.` ` To cultivate talents and skills; to excel at or do something really well; to develop excellence and depth in an area of expertise and to stay at the cutting edge.x` s&-}'}' 2.` ` To explore new horizons; to develop breadth of knowledge, skills and interests; to expand a point of view; to experience greater variety.x`  b( Evidence of Goal Attainment: Employees report that they can do their work at high levels of excellence. They have depth of expertise in certain areas and are capable of doing and learning to do other jobs in the organization. They report being able to use their talents and skills in a wide variety of tasks. Employees report that they have great confidence in their abilities.  b] ) TWOă  av ] PERCEPTIONS OF OPPORTUNITY ă Opportunity means that an employee perceives that conditions are favorable for the attainment of a goal. Thus, if employees in an organization feel that there are few or no conditions that are favorable for them to advance in the organization, they will feel that they lack opportunity. If they think, for example, that conditions are favorable for receiving a promotion or a salary increase or growing, they will tend to feel that they have opportunity in the organization. Employees will feel vitalized if they perceive themselves eligible for and able to advance themselves and their status in the organization. Opportunity may be the most powerful element of the four since it has such potentially devastating consequences when not present. To highlight how critical opportunity is to the life of an employee, let us look quickly at five negative consequences that occur when employees feel that they lack opportunities.  b % Self Esteem ă Every employee is susceptible to changes in self esteem through the reflected image that he or she gains from others. Those who receive positive images about their abilities through comments and rewards come to value themselves more highly. Those who feel locked into repetitious tasks or who feel invisible to others, gradually lose self esteem. Experienced and talented employees often voice genuine doubts about their abilities when they face continual rejection. g$ -}'}'  b % Aspirations ă Opportunity also affects an employee's aspirations or desired achievements. If the organization reinforces and rewards actions that support certain types of goals, employees tend to develop aspirations to reach those goals. Employees who have been stuck in one position for a lengthy period of time tend to curtail any aspirations they might have had initially. In the absence of such aspirations, they fail to see themselves in any other position. If a new position is eventually offered to them, they respond negatively because they have lost the internal vision of themselves that matches the new opportunity. Employees who consistently experience little or no opportunity gradually suppress any larger vision of their potential and represent themselves to others as tentative, self doubting and content to stay where they are.  b W% Commitment ă Opportunity also affects the extent to which employees remain committed to an organization. Those who experience opportunity through personal growth and recognition tend to feed their positive feelings back to the organization. They become motivated to do more, to spend extra hours working, to look for additional ways to contribute, and to try innovative ways to improve productivity. Those who receive negative information about opportunities gradually withdraw from or completely leave the organization. The withdrawal may be subtle in that they continue to do what is asked but at minimally acceptable levels. They may, on the other hand, transfer their energy to another arena, to some other organization or activity, where the response is more positive.  b ' Energy ă Employees with blocked opportunity tend to turn to their peers for comfort and recognition. The recognition obtained from friends may have less to do with how well they perform their jobs at work and more to do with how skilled they are in sports, recipes, or gardening. They may devote more energy to contacts and information exchange on tangential activities and less to the work itself. Employees who see high opportunity respond to recognitions of their value by becoming more focused on the task and waste less time in contacts and interactions that are not related to completing their work.k% -}'}'Ԍ b ԙ# Problem Solving ă Employees high in opportunity tend to be proactive in addressing problems in their work and in the organization. If they recognize or identify a potential problem they act on their own initiative to solve it before it becomes a major issue in the organization. For the person without opportunity, organizational problems reflect a personal discontent. Instead of acting to resolve problems, they tend to sit passively by and grumble. If someone suggests a solution, they are the first to criticize it. Since their own life in the organization has been primarily negative, they may even derive some satisfaction from seeing the organization in trouble.  bo   OPPORTUNITY GROWTH GOALS ă 3.` ` To have a greater influence with people on decisions; to help make things happen; to be more of a force in moving things ahead; to have others acknowledge the impact.x` 4.` ` To be more connected with others; to work together and share expertise; to be loyal to others and have people count on you; to have a sense of community and intimacy.x` 5.` ` To be more confident, centered and clear about who you are; to acquire greater respect for our own talents, skills, and limitations; to be valued and accepted for who we are.x`  b Evidence of Goal Attainment: Employees report having considerable influence on organization members and decisions. They report that they help make things happen. Employees receive recognition for their contributions and feel that they are growing personally. They work together and share their expertise. Employees have a sense of loyalty to others and a sense of community in the organization. They are confident, focused, and clear about their roles and responsibilities. They value and accept one another for who they are. c$ -}'}'  b `( THREE ă  a  c PERCEPTIONS OF FULFILLMENT ă Fulfillment at work indicates that employees feel that they are successful in doing and achieving what they want to and in ways that they chose. The clearest indication of fulfillment is the feeling that a person is able to do things in the organization in unique, creative, innovative, and independent ways. A fulfilling organization is "a workplace where people are talking about their work, exchanging ideas, where top managers and newcomers know one another and often work together, where people are learning at companysponsored events like lectures and concerts and through travel for specialized training or stimulation. "It is a workplace where people are working on what interests them most, although it also means stretching to learn new tasks related to your job or working in new departments to get a feel for the company as a whole" (Naisbitt and Aburdene, 1992, p. 60). In a small company in Vermont, an employee can choose everyday "which production task she'll do." Everyday, she runs the risk of getting a free back rub or having a hilarious runin with the company's Joy Gang. Every day, 7.5 percent of her company's pretax profits go to a worthy social causelike the environmentthat she helps choose. Not to mention such benefits as free health club memberships, profit sharing and college tuition. "`It's what a job should be,' says Carpenter, who persuaded her husband, George, to leave his family's dairy farm and work with her. `It's not just making money, but doing good things'" (Clurman, 1993, p. 4).  b1  Fulfillment Growth Goals ă 6.` ` To have our efforts add up to something meaningful and significant; to work with integrity to our own values and beliefs; to have reasons for actions that stem from what we consider to be important.x` n% -}'}'Ԍ7.` ` To have greater autonomy; to develop more initiative; to be free from external control and constraints; to take risks; to be better able to stand on our own and not be dependent on others.x` 8.` ` To create and use our own ideas, solutions, and plans; to evolve ideas that are expressions of ourselves; to turn our own ideas or concepts into actions that affect others; to build positive memories.x`  bd Evidence of Goal Attainment: Employees will report having great autonomy. They will exhibit high levels of initiative. They will be free from external controls and constraints. Employees will report that they take calculated risks. They demonstrate a degree of independence. They believe that their contributions are meaningful and significant. They use their own ideas, solutions, and plans to evolve new approaches to problem solving. They report exhibiting their creativity and imagination.  b ( FOUR ă  b "  PERCEPTIONS OF EXPECTATIONS ă The beginning of our careers--our life's work--is comprised, to some extent, of a set of expectations and aspirations rooted in a series of perceived promises. A promise is some assurance--real or imagined--that someone or something (often the organization) will give us or help us accomplish something in the future. Employment itself is a form of promise. When we get a job, the assumption is tentatively established that the future may turn out the way we imagined it would. Continued employment reinforces the promise. Advancement on the job enables us to confirm that the promises underlying the agreement of employment are being fulfilled. If things go well, we become confident that the promises were sincere. Although some occasional set-backs may occur, on the whole, a career that progresses systematically appears, more often than not, to be based on real, sincere promises.q% -}'}'Ԍ Expectations represent what people think they can achieve. Promises are the assurances that lead to the expectations. When we are assured that we will get something, we are led to expect it to appear. Thus, the perception that one's highest aspirations are being achieved is a perception that stimulates vitality. Even more important to vitality, however, is the fact that, within reason, the higher the expectations, the greater the results. People tend to grow and develop when they are inspired by high expectations. In one sense, we become what we aspire to become, we achieve what we aspire to achieve. If we cease to have high expectations, we deny our right to have full personal growth. For people to reach a high level of success in an organization, they need to set difficult and challenging goals, aspirations, or expectations. Difficult goals or high expectations produce higher levels of performance than easy goals or low expectations. The ultimate conclusion is that organization members must be helped to see that they can aspire to greater things and to feel assured that their highest expectations will be realized. Employees with the highest levels of energy and vitality are those who have strong inclinations to achieve "natural growth goals."  b  x Expectations Growth Goals ă 9.` ` To aspire to greater things; to want more; to see a possible, tenable, and happier individual existence.x` 10.` ` To feel assured that the future will be better; to believe passionately in the infinite perfectibility of human beings.x` 11.` ` To dream, have visions, and engage in wild and extravagant hopes; to picture cities yet to be built and gardens yet to be planted.x` s&-}'}'  b Evidence of Goal Attainment: Employees will report that they feel that their future in the organization will constantly get better. Employees will want more for the organization and for themselves. Employees will share their lofty and expanded aspirations with one another. Personal aspirations will be matched with the realities of work. Employees will belief passionately in limitless possibilities for the organization and themselves. I-}'}'  \ #  PE37zP# $ WHY VITALITY ă  "  The Origins of Energy and Competitiveness ă   # PE37 ,P#yx@ dddy   yxZ dddy Why do some employees work harder or smarter and exert more energy than others? Why is it that some workers appear to have more energy and enthusiasm when they work? Differences among employees occur because they can decide how much effort or energy they want to devote to their work. This is the principle  b of worker effort discretion . If employees feel that the organization in which they are working supports their POFE perceptions they are more likely to devote more energy to their work.  b/ V& POINT ONE  aD  Workers decide how much effort or energy they are willing to put into  aN their work! In doing their work, employees have a certain amount of discretion in the amount of effort they expend to get their work done. They can exert a great deal of effort or they can exert minimal effort. This makes an employee's productivity  b dependent upon what we popularly call motivation, or the decision to exert maximum energy to work. Economists often refer to those factors that encourage  b employees to decide to devote more energy to their work as X or unknown efficiencies. An employee's unknown motivational factors are these special perceptions, the POFE, that provide unique interest in, commitment to, and enthusiasm for work. The turnaround of the Ford Motor plant in Louisville, Kentucky, after 1979 is an example of how focusing on Xefficiency or the POFE factors may make a difference in productivity. Prior to 1979 the Ford assembly plant was known as a "war zone," characterized as filthy, with openly hostile labormanagement relations, autocratic managers, intransigent union leaders, mutual distrust, and little concern for employees. Then, in 1979, the demand for cars made in the Louisville plant declined sharply and the night shift was laid off. Rumors circulated that the plant would be closed.$&-}'}'ԌBoth the plant's manager and union chair were replaced at the same time. The new leaders recognized that selfdestructive behavior was not necessary. It was also announced that the plant had six months to make a turn around or it would be closed. Small but important employee requests, such as lunch tables, were responded to by the plant. A qualityofworklife program was instituted and serious ongoing discussions with employees resulted in many other small changes. One large change was to replace the tradition of having designers send their plans directly to manufacturing where the product was built. A great deal of unnecessary effort was spent on trying to follow plans that seemed unnecessarily difficult. Under the new procedures, the plans were displayed on the plant floor and comments were  bx invited before the manufacturing phase began. By early 1980 the plant was turning out high quality products and by the end of 1980 the parent company decided to invest $700 million in the production of the Ford Ranger. Quality inspection concerns dropped from 700 per 100 cars to 198, the lowest in Ford's U.S. history. Much of the credit for the Ford turnaround was due to the focus on Xefficiency factors, highlighted primarily by changes in aspects of the work system that provided a new set of perceptions about work among employees.  b 6& POINT TWO ă  a  As a worker, my views or perceptions of the work system determine how  a much effort or energy I will put into my work.  b In understanding worker motivation, it is critical to realize that worker effort discretion is a function of how employees view, see, or perceive different  b% aspects of the system in which they work. If the work system is perceived as having a positive effect on select aspects of an employee's work life, employees will choose to devote more energy to their work. Most researchers agree that "what employees `see' influences what the organization gets." A study of two petroleum refineries in Egypt, that were less than a half mile from each other, revealed that the productivity of one was double the other for years, but under completely new management the inefficient refineryl%-}'}'  b made spectacular improvements in efficiency with the same labor force , clearly suggesting that motivation at work is affected by the work system. Workers who like their jobs, who feel challenged, who have the opportunity to achieve their goals, and who feel that they have the talent to do a good job will tend to exhibit less destructive behavior on the job. They will be absent less frequently, they will be less inclined to change jobs, and they will produce at a higher level with higher quality. Q-}'}'  \ #  PE37zP#d # THE WORK SYSTEM ă  \  FIVE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS ă   # PE37 ,P#yx dddy   yx dddy  b@ % THE WORKER ă The work system is created, maintained, expanded, moved, and developed through the efforts of the individuals of which it is comprised, although the precise manner in which those efforts are applied to the system depend in great part on the other elements of the work system the work and its technology, organization guidelines, organization structure, managerial practices, and environment. In traditional treatment of workers and organizational behavior, the primary goal is to identify those factors associated with individuals that differentiate them from one another (Van Fleet, 1991; Hellriegel, Slocum, and Woodman, 1986). That is, human beings resemble one another in many ways, but each one is also quite unique. For example, our internal biological mechanisms are quite similar, as is our general appearance. On the other hand, we are differentiated from one another by sets of psychological and behavioral traits and characteristics.  b Personality is one of the major differentiating factors in human beings. Personality is a term that refers to the tendencies and traits that underly, determine, or influence how people think, feel, and behave. In that sense, personality theory may be considered a general theory of behavioral consistency and stability that attempts to explain the very essence of what it means to be human. One's personality in the workplace tends to be reflected in four basic characteristics: beliefs about locus of control or the extent to which individuals feel that what happens to them is a result of their own actions or of actions beyond their control, tendencies toward sociability (introvert/extrovert), beliefs about power and status differences (authoritarianism and dogmatism traits), and selfesteem or people's opinions of their own behavior, abilities, appearance, and worth.  bf% Attitude is a second differentiating factor among individuals. Attitudes are relatively stable and lasting sets of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentionss&-}'}' directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, objects, or events. Attitudes represent a complex interplay between a person's cognitions, emotions, and predispositions to behave. A positive attitude means that you are disposed toward, feel good about, and have optimistic beliefs about something. A negative attitude means that you are disposed against, feel badly about, and have pessimistic beliefs about something.  bF Perception, or the way a person abstracts details and combines them into coherent meaning about a situation, is a third differentiating factor. Perception represents the process by which individuals focus on some aspects of their world and ignore other aspects of it and make sense of what is happening to them. Perception involves searching for, getting, and processing information about the people, objects, and events around individuals and organizing that information to make sense out of them.  b Attribution is closely related to perception and is the process of perceiving the causes of behavior, one's own and others. Attribution may be the central activity in the perception of people. The basic reason why people make attributions is to explain why people behave as they appear to do. Attributions attempt to explain what causes behavior. Attributions play a critical role in understanding people's reactions to one another (Seligman & Schulman, 1986). Causes of behavior tend to focus on internal sources (the person's nature, attitudes, personality) or external sources (unreasonable work loads, being provoked, chance occurrences). It has been argued that people tend to underestimate the impact of situational or external causes of behavior and overestimate the impact of personal traits, emotions, motives or internal causes of behavior when seeking to understand why people behave the way they do (Harvey and Weary, 1984).  b  # THE WORK ITSELF Ã  b3  The work that people do is comprised of the formal and informal tasks in which they engage in order to achieve the specific goals assigned to them by the organization. Griffin (1982, pp. 57) suggests the importance of the jobs that workers do in an organization when he explains that "job design variables were positively correlated with work effectiveness" (effort, quantity, and quality of output). Nevertheless, the work itself focuses on the design of jobs in the technical system of the organization and finds expression in both tasks and technology.o%-}'}'Ԍ b ԙ% Job Design ă The primary goal of workers is to create the product or provide the service that is the output of the work system. In an equipment manufacturing plant, for example, the workers may produce molds, weld parts, or move equipment. In retailing, workers meet customers and sell merchandise, or fry hamburgers and make milkshakes. In government offices, workers meet constitutents, process applications, and distribute decisions. In knowledge industries, workers process information. Organizational jobs are characterized by three universal dimensions: (1) content, (2) requirements, and (3) context (Gibson, Ivancevich, and Donnelly, 1991).  b Job content is described in terms of what the worker does in relation to materials, people, and other tasks; in terms of the methods and techniques the worker uses; in terms of the machines, tools, and equipment the worker uses; and, in terms of the materials, goods, information, and services the worker produces.  b Job requirements refer to prerequisite knowledge, skills, and attitudes thought to be appropriate for a person to be able to perform the work, including education, experience, licenses, and personal attributes required to perform the job in a particular setting.  b Job context refers to the physical demands and conditions of the job location, the kind of accountability and responsibility associated with the job, the amount of supervision required, and the general environment in which the job is performed. Most jobs also have three characteristics: range, depth, and relationships.  b6 The job range refers to the number of different tasks a worker performs to complete a job. The greater number of tasks a worker performs, usually, the longer it takes to do a job.  ba# The job depth refers to the amount of discretion a person has to determine specific job activities and outcomes. Highly specialized jobs are those having few tasks to accomplish and precisely defined means by which to accomplish them.x%-}'}'Ԍ b ԙ , The job relationships involve the number of interpersonal contacts required or made possible in the performance of a particular job. Workers with similar backgrounds, skills, and interests have a basis for more interpersonal contacts than do heterogeneous workers, and often arrive at satisfying social relationships with less stress and with greater fulfillment. Improvements in the way in which work is done may be achieved in two ways: (1) Determining the best way to do a task and the amount of time necessary for completing the task. Time and motion study attempts to increase work efficiency in this way. (2) Varying the characteristics of work by increasing work range by giving more variety, task identity, and feedback, or work depth by increasing autonomy, or adjusting relationships by providing structures and opportunities that allow for interacting with others (Hackman and Oldham, 1980, pp. 7780). One difficulty in using task changes as the basis for job improvements involves the predispositions and perceptions of workers. That is, workers with a perceived need for increased social belonging, for example, tend to perceive the need for more interpersonal contact opportunities differently from workers who perceive less of a need for social contacts. Individual differences in growth needs may also affect a worker's perceptions of the need for work variety. Weak growth needs encourage perceptions that variety may be less important. Hence, increases in variety may not increase performance. Adjustments in job range have been made using job rotation and job enlargement methods by moving a worker from one job to another and by increasing the number of tasks for which an individual worker is responsible. Adjustments in job depth have been achieved through job enrichment, the practice of giving workers more discretion over the activities and outcomes involved in a job. Adjustments in both job range and job depth have been accomplished by combining elements of tasks into a more complete whole, by assigning whole pieces or modules of work to individual workers, by giving workers more discretion in the selection of methods of work, permitting some selfpaced procedures, and by giving workers more information about the actual results of their work.u&-''Ԍ a  4 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES AND PROCESSES The primary goal of leaders is to get the work done through other people. Leaders make decisions about how other people, usually their subordinates, use resources needed to do their work. Some leaders supervise operative workers while others supervise other leaders.  Leadership Practices The work of a leader has been described in a variety of ways, but two fairly basic approaches seem to describe leadership activities in most of its complexities. First, some consensus has been achieved around the idea that leaders engage in approximately five main functions (Mackenzie, 1969): planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling (Pace, 1983, pp. 260271). Second, some sound evidence suggests that leaders perform about 10 generic roles (Mintzberg, 1973) divided into three basic groups: Interpersonal Roles (Figurehead, Leader, Liaison), Informational Roles (Monitor, Disseminator, Spokeperson), and Decision Roles (Entrepreneur, Disturbance Handler, Resource Allocator, and Negotiator). ` `   Leadership Processes Leaders are the key forces in several processes that occur in organizations that place them in the center of much of what happens in a work system. Included among the central leadership processes are problem solving and decisionmaking, creativity and innovation, leadership and influence, power and conflict management, team building and work groups, performance evaluation and control, communication and information accessibility, culture management, socialization and career planning, human resource development, and organization change.  b6 G  ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE ă Organization structure refers to "the relationship among the tasks performed by the members of the organization" (Tosi, Rizzo, and Carroll, 1990, p. 39). Organization structure appears to be defined by two key variables: complexity and centralization (Robbins, 1989, p. 398). s&-''Ԍ b ԙ% Complexity ă Complexity is a function of three factors: (1) The degree to which differences exist beteween units (horizontal differentiation) as a result of the education, training, and specializations that exist in the organization. Universities have a large number of specialties and, hence, tend to be horizontally differentiated. (2) The number of levels of authority between workers and top executives (vertical differentiation). Whether an organization structure is taller or flatter depends on the span of control or number of subordinates a manager can supervise effectively. A workforce of 4096 employees, for example, would require 1,365 managers using a span of control of four and only 585 managers with a span of control of eight (Robbins, 1987, pp. 5960). Sheer size of the organization may dictate having a narrower span of control, although the type of job and the ability of organization members to make independent decisions may allow for a wider span of control. (3) The degree to which the location of an organization's facilities and personnel are dispersed geographically (spatial differentiation). An organization with branch offices in twenty different locations will tend to be more complex than an organization in which its entire operation is in one place.  b # Centralization ă Centralization refers to the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. Decentralization, in contrast, refers to the extent to which decision making authority is dispersed throughout the organization. The formal authority given to workers and managers to make decisions about their work activities is a measure of centralization. Policies that limit decision making tend to move organizations toward centralization. Situations in which workers are prohibited from participating in decisions about their work represent centralization. If some form of discretion is provided at low levels in the organization, but the decisions are closely monitored, the organization is still functioning with high degrees of centralization. The use of autonomous work groups is an effort to decentralize decision making in organizations. Ansoff and McDonnell (1990) assert that structure is the "arrangement of tasks, roles, authority, and responsibility through which a firms does its work" (p. 354). They suggest that the "purpose of structure is to support the firm'st&-'' responsiveness to four or five critical issues: Functional or operating responsiveness, divisional or competitive responsiveness, project or innovative responsiveness, international or strategic responsiveness, and multistructural or differential responsiveness. "The relative importance of the different types of responsiveness to a firm can be determined, on the one hand, by the stylistic preferences of management and, on the other, by the turbulence characteristics of the firm's environment" (p. 354). The strategic responsiveness is, in part, a function of the last major dimension of the work system, the organization's operating guidelines.  bn   ORGANIZATIONAL GUIDELINES ă Organizational guidelines refers to the vast array of statements that manage, control and formalizes actions and decisions of organization members.  b ($ Formalization ă Formalization refers to the degree to which jobs and tasks are standardized. If a job is highly formalized, the worker has little discretion over where, when, and how the job is to be done. Formalization occurs when job duties are governed by rules and regulations, whether stated directly or simply understood by workers. Perceptions of workers concerning the extent to which job procedures and activities are specified and enforced give a fair measure of formalization in an organization. Professionalization also produces standardized or formal behavior through the socialization of workers before they even enter employment. Formalization is achieved through the selection process, by specifying role expectations, by training in job procedures and skills, and through the process of having workers perform rituals to demonstrate that they have formalized the ideology of the organization. hh#(-pp277 Stoner (1978) distinguishes among policies, procedures, rules, objectives, strategies, purposes, goals, and missions of organizations, and places each in the context of planning and decision making, which is consistent with our view of critical dimensions of the work system. Our preference is to consider all of these statements under the single heading of "organizational guidelines" to encompass all of the statements that show the way, govern, and direct decisions in an organization. Using this framework, we may consider organizational guidelines tot&-'' encompass such statements as goals, ends, missions, purposes, standards, deadlines, targets, and quotas, as well as policies, strategies, procedures, rules, and regulations.  b( }' SUMMARY ă The Work System is comprised of five elements that are interrelated and interdependent in operation, but that can be discussed in discrete units: The Worker, The Work, Leadership Practices and Processes, Organization Structure, and Organizational Guidelines. Work Systems are created, maintained, and developed like the human beings that constitute the living, breathing work units in the system. y -''  \ #  PE37zP# % INTRODUCING ă  \ d # THE WORK SYSTEM ă    *# PE37 ,P#yx dddyڃ   yxIdddy  b % DEFINITIONS ă  b Work is the term we use when we talk about making or doing something, or, more specifically, when we talk about applying energy to or expending effort on achieving or completing a particular task. Work is the physical or mental effort put into doing or making something. As soon as more than one person is needed to make or do somethingto  b+ work, we find the beginnings of organization. We often think of organizing as the act of arranging a thing's parts so they work together. To get organized means, in popular language, to put people and things into a working order. 3Definition of a Work System  bj A system is broadly conceived of as a set of elements or parts interconnected and interdependent so as to form an operating whole. A work organization in which a number of individuals put physical and mental effort into accomplishing something is a system when it contains all of the basic parts to form a functioning  b whole. A work system consists of all the key elements that make up what is necessary for several people to devote energy to making or doing something. Basically, when one person finds it necessary to recruit others to help accomplish work, the organizer must define the work to be completed, how the worker fits into the system and relates to other elements, the overall mission and policies that guide the work, and the management practices to be used to keep the work moving forward. #-''  b ( FIVE ă  b  c& ELEMENTS ă From the act of organizing, we can derive five essential elements of the work system:  I.` ` The workerx`  II.` ` The work itselfx` III.` ` The structure of the organization or the way in which individuals and roles relatex` IV.` ` The guidelines of the organization or the statements, agreements, plans, rules and policies that constitute the arrangements by which work ought to be done and goals accomplishedx`  V.` ` The leadership practices used to maintain the collectivity and move toward goal accomplishment.x` The purpose of this discussion is simply to define and briefly characterize these five elements. Little effort will be made to show how they interact, or how they lead to organizational effectiveness or ineffectiveness. -''    Work System Referencesă Ansoff, Igor and Edward McDonnell. Implanting Strategic Management, Second XEdition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.(# Bierstadt, Robert. The Social Order. New York: McGrawHill Book XCompany, 1963.(# Etzioni, Amitai. Modern Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, X1964.(# Galagan, Patricia, "Measuring a Hidden Asset," Training & XDevelopment Journal (September 1988), p. 37.(# Griffin, Ricky W. Task Design: An Integrative Approach. XGlenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1982.(# Hackman, J. Richard and Greg R. Oldham. Work Redesign. Reading, MA: XAddisonWesley Publishing Company, 1980.(# Hanna, David P. Designing Organizations for High Performance. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley Publishing Company, 1988. Hartman, Curtis and Steven Perlstein, "The Joy of Working," INC X(November 1987), pp. 6171.(# Juechter, W. 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